Lecture Organization

Common forms of lecture organization

• Hierarchic Forms
• The classification Hierarchy: 
• Different points of information are grouped together with a unifying feature as a heading 
• This form is the easiest for a new lecturer to give. They require attention to one thing at a time and not much dynamic ability.
• the main disadvantage is it is stops flexible thinking in students. Thus it has to be coupled with discussions and buzz groups.
• second disadvantage is boredom.
• conclusion: This form is good for introducing complex and difficult subject matters, and for presentation of facts. It is not suitable for simulating thought and interest. It should be used with younger and less able students.
•   The Problem-Centered Lecture:
• The lecturer gives a problem at the beginning and then presents information, arguments, etc as possible solutions. Everything is focused on the initial problem.
• For this type, it is important to get the problem clear at the beginning. Thus it is appropriate to refer back to the problem often so that students can relate the information with the problem.
• It is of outmost importance for the lecturer to explain why each hypothesis is a possible solution because it is shown that students do not make eve the most important and simple inferences in lecture situations. 
• it is the most difficult form to lecture but if done well, it is very rewarding for both lecturer and students.
• Chaining
• Variations and more Complex Forms
• comparison 
• The thesis
• Logical Dichotomy
• Network

Making the Organization Clear

•  Introductions: State the Organization at the Beginning
• For Each New Point: Itemize
• For Each New Point: Use a Visual Buildup
• For Conclusions, Take Stock and Summarize

Motivating Students

Student motivation is more important than intelligence. Motivated students work longer than more intensively. Good teaching uses and fosters motivation; bad teaching kills it.

How Can We Motivate Students?

• Enthusiasm from the lecturer
• Cultivating Existing Motives

 Common Motives of Students:

• "Deep" and "surface" Approaches
• surface approach: students' intentions are to store information; to memorize facts and principles without much thought. They think of the teacher's role as presenting information and the students' role as reproducing it in examinations to demonstrate that they know it. 
• Deep approach: emphasize thought rather than memory. They integrate new ideas to those already possessed. They exercise imagination, distinguish principles from examples and look for the overall structure of ideas.
• The Desire for Relevance
• Curiosity
• Achievement and Fear
• Fear of Failure: Although fear of examinations can help urge the student to study more, fear, is not normally conducive to high student motivation. Study has shown that average students learned more from lectures when they knew they would be tested on it; but knowing this did not affect the performance of good and poor students. 
• Desire for Personal Achievement
• Need for Social Interaction : working in groups helps motivation. 
• Activity and Esteem: motivate students by letting them first taste the fruit of success and giving positive feedback and praise.

Factors affecting students' attention

Arousal: gneral level of activity
motivation: energy directed toward a specific kind of activity or goal.

The effects of Arousal

Factors affecting student arousal

• Variations in stimulation in the learning situation
• Auditory Stimulation
• Visual Stimulation
• Posture
• Novel Stimulation
• Intensity of Stimulation
• The students' arousal regimes during periods of teaching
• Attention Decrement: The decrement in the note taking will reduce knowledge in the long run.
• The effect of a short break
• The students' daily work and rest regimes 
• Students are generally more attentive early morning than late in the evening
• They are more attentive early in the week then late in the week.
• The students' physical environment and bodily condition

Factors influencing memory

It takes two to communicate: a communicator and a receiver. 

Structures and processes

• Memory entails three processes: encoding, storage, retrieval
• There are two kinds of memory: short term and long term. Evidences
• Structural changes in the brain. 
• A logical distinction
• Electrical Activity and Chemical stimulation of the Brain
• half an hour is the max time a lecturer should speak without giving students a task that involves retrieving it. 
• Common Experience 
• A limit t the Number of Items Memorized 
• The methods of association
• It's not that simple. 
• Sensory memories 
• Temporal differences 
• sense modalities
• other distinctive abilities
• contrasting LTMs
• baddeley's working memory
• other complexities
• What happens when students listen to a lecture
• auditory analysis of sense data
• word recognition
• contextual factors
• articulatory loop
• the construction of meaning by encoding
• thinking : students are under pressure not to think during lectures!
• expression or recording?
• visual counterparts
• levels of processing

• Factors Causing Forgetting 
• Retroactive and Proactive interference
• Retroactive interference: when what the students learn in the second lecture interferes with what they learnt in the first lecture
• Proactive Interference: When what students learnt in the first lecture interferes with what they learn in the second lecture.
• Silence between teachers' remarks is a very important part of a lecture. it provides time for consolidation and thought. We need more silence in the third quarter of a lecture because interference is most at that time. Interference is the main cause of forgetting in lectures.
• Associative interference is also generally agreed to be the most potent cause of forgetting and that is why students are advised to vary their subject of study. 
• Interference is particularly potent over short periods, such as a few seconds.
• Items said at the beginning and end of lecture are the ones that will be remembered if no repetition is used. But statements that are different stand out and are well remembered even when they are in the middle.

• "Trace Decay" in the first few seconds
• A student's memory when taking notes of what a lecturer has said will also quickly fade
• The amount of Information 
• A common cause of forgetting is trying to learn too much. 
• The average number of items of knowledge that a person can hold in short-term memory is seven plus or minus two. 
• repressing what you don’t want to remember 
• People forget what they don't want to remember.

• Factors Aiding Memory
• Making the Lecture Meaningful to the students
• whole versus part learning
• Organizing the Subject
• Rehearsing the Material: students try to remember what has been said
• Repetition by the lecturer : the lecturer repeats what has been said
• Feedback on Learning: reward and punishment. At first, it is better to give information first and later, motivation.
• Arousal
• Transfer of learning

2.Changing attitudes

Proposition: Changing attitudes should not normally be the major objective of a lecture.

1. Lectures are relatively ineffective for teaching values associated with subject matter
• Presentations can produce doubt by giving negative information that is inconsistent with the values of the audience; but arousing positive enthusiasm requires something quiet different. Enthusiasm, and motivation generally, cannot be given in presentations. Motivation is an inner flame that has to be there already!
• There appears to be a strong case that discussion methods are more effective than lectures in changing attitudes.  
2. Lectures are relatively ineffective for inspiring interest in a subject
• In an inquiry by Woolford (1969), although in general students were more satisfied the more they were able to participate, those who were more able, less emotionally stable, or less extroverted preferred participation to be restricted. There were no differences between those from different social backgrounds.   
3. Lectures are relatively ineffective for personal and social adjustment

1.Promotion of Thought

proposition: Most Lectures Are Not as Effective as Discussion Methods for the Promotion of Thought.

Corman (1957) found that a knowledge of the principles used in solving problems made no difference to the number of problems students could actually solve, and information on how to approach problems could only be applied by the most intelligent group.
Knowledge is not enough. Students need practice in solving problems and applying principles. 

This brings to mind that:
1. Attendance is Tutorial Sessions should be made mandatory.
2. During the tutorial more time should be dedicated to practicing and less time for going over solutions. or Students should be asked to come to tutorial with answers.

With few exceptions, discussion is consistently more effective than lectures in getting students to think.
Why
Compared with discussion methods, the students' role in lecture is relatively passive. According to the table below in which all comparisons were statistically significant, during discussion students are more attentive, active, and thoughtful than during lectures.

Activity	% of time spent on activity in Lectures	% of time spent on activity in discussions
Passive Thoughts about the subject	36.8	20.3
Thoughts evidencing simple comprehension	36.8	20.3
Irrelevant Thoughts	31	14.5
Attemptiong to solve problems	8.3	1.0

The best way to learn to solve problems is to be given problems that have to be solved.
The best way to develop powers of analysis is to keep analyzing situations and data. 

The Gestalt school described problem solving as a process of achieving "insight" by:

1. recognizing the problem.
2. gaining familiarity with its elements, such as the concepts involved. 
3. constantly recognizing the elements. 
4. incorporating a considerable period of irrelevant activity or overt inactivity 
5. culminating in a flash of insight displayed by the sudden demonstration of the solution. 

Ideas for tutorials:

• In every tutorial session, spend the second half of the tutorial in just explaining the questions. (points 1 and 2 above)
•  Students are to submit answers to the tutorial within a week from the tutorial. (points 4, 5)
• In every tutorial session, spend the first half of the tutorial in giving the solutions to the tutorial for which students just submitted answers. The solutions to the tutorials are not to be available online anytime during the week.